Information Systems Development
/Research Curation Team:
Sabine Matook (The University of Queensland)
Gwanhoo Lee (American University)
Brian Fitzgerald (Lero, University of Limerick)
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Information systems development (ISD) has been a fundamental topic in MISQ from its first volume (Juergens 1977, Kling 1977).
1 Focus of the Research Curation
An early challenge for us in preparing this curation was that ISD was not defined precisely in any of the MISQ articles we reviewed, despite early recommendations to do so (Moore 1979, p. 31). The best definitions we could find tended to be mere descriptions of activities in the systems development life-cycle (Juergens 1977, Swanson 1989, Slaughter et al. 2006). To address this problem, we developed the following definition of ISD to focus the curation.
ISD is the entire suite of development activities (e.g., planning, analysis, design, building, testing, and maintenance) undertaken by agents (humans [individuals/ collectives] or software) to create a working information system. ISD is embedded in a social, organizational, and technical context with stakeholders who influence and are influenced by the ISD activities.
For papers to be included in the curation, we did not require them to address every element of the definition. Nevertheless, we required them to match at least several elements of it. The definition focused our search and, in turn, our analysis of the papers helped us to refine the definition.
With this definition in mind, we examined the titles and abstracts of all MISQ articles. We identified 107 potentially relevant articles. We then removed six articles deemed only marginally relevant. Our final set comprised 101 articles that had a core focus on ISD.
Of the 107 articles, 67 articles were published from 1977-1999 and 34 from 2000 and 2021. We do not believe that the reducing publication rate reflects a reduction in ISD’s significance. Rather, we believe it reflects the burgeoning of ISD-related topics covered in other MISQ curations, such as IT project management, IS control & governance, and IS sourcing). To minimize duplication among curations, we only include articles from those other curations in this curation if they make a core ISD contribution (e.g., Rai et al. 2009, Gregory et al. 2013, and Benaroch et al. 2016).
2 Progression of Research in MISQ
1977 to 1979|: Focus on ISD practices and techniques
The earliest papers focused on general ISD concepts, frameworks, and techniques. For example, researchers discussed the efficacy of concepts such as decoupling (Juergens 1977), heuristics (Berrisford and Wetherbe 1978), and team structures (Locander et al. 1979). Others focused on measuring ISD quality (Halloran et al. 1978) and learning how organizational strategy/process supports ISD (Moore 1979). Researchers also recognized users as critical actors in ISD (e.g., Kling 1977, Alter 1978, Schmitt and Kozar 1978, Senn 1978a,b; McLean 1979). Authors rarely used an explicit theoretical lens in early articles. Instead, they generally adopted a practitioner-informed lens.
1980s: Focus on organizational and managerial issues
ISD research in the 1980s centered on questions related to organizational problems and the opportunities provided by IS. During this time, ISD methods were generally seen as a ‘must-have.’ We identified two areas of focus in the articles, both centered on methods. First, some articles examined existing methods, especially prototyping methods (Janson and Smith 1985, Kraushaar et al. 1985, Mahmood 1987). Other articles developed new methods and artifacts (Weber 2003) in what would later be referred to as the design science tradition (Hevner et al. 2004).
In essence, the method articles in this period unpacked the characteristics of the ISD life cycle (Necco et al. 1987), created an approach for managing large ISD efforts (Zmud 1980), and compared alternative models (Shomenta et al. 1983, Mantha 1987, King 1992) while also elaborating on significant factors that influence ISD, mainly that of the development environment and actors (Ahituv et al. 1984). This era closed with an article by Mantei and Teorey (1989) that elaborated on techniques for gathering human-oriented information to improve a system’s human-computer interface.
Continuing from the prior era, articles in this era emphasized users as critical ISD actors. Some articles proposed and applied user-centered ISD approaches (Kozar and Mahlum 1987) and contingency models (Mann and Watson 1984; Tait and Vessey 1988) to theorize users’ inputs. Others focused on communication patterns between users and analysts (Salaway 1987) and the distinctions between user participation and user involvement (Barki and Hartwick 1989).
Overall, ISD research in this period contributed to establishing an identity for the IS field (Benbasat and Zmud, 2003).
1990s: Focus on stakeholders and methods
The articles in this timeframe showed significant interest in users as stakeholders in ISD, e.g., Hunton and Beeler (1997), McKeen et al. (1994), Barki and Hartwick (1994), Newman and Robey (1992). Researchers also studied other stakeholders, such as top management (Newman and Sabherwal 1996), IS executives (Watson and Frolick 1993), and IS managers (Watson et al. 1991).
The growing interest in activities by ISD stakeholders resulted in articles examining specific aspects of ISD methods from the stakeholder perspective. Articles examined the use of metaphors for ISD activities (Kendall and Kendall 1993), how to tailor methods to meet organizational demands (Hirschheim and Klein 1994), and the need for completely new methods (Swanson et al 1991).
2000 - present: Focus on agility, complexity, and innovation in ISD
Compared to earlier periods, ISD articles in this period were more strongly informed by theory, more integrated with different, but related topics, and more diverse in empirical methods. Benefiting from the foundational work of previous years, these articles became more granular in their focus on specific aspects of ISD. The articles clearly specified a theoretical lens to develop and test hypotheses.
We identified four major evolutionary paths in the articles published after 2000.
First, we noted an evolution in the study of the ISD method itself. In prior eras, articles focused on presenting and developing ISD methods, motivated by the shortcomings of traditional methods and the lack of generally-accepted methods. Since 2000, the articles shifted their focus to the use of ISD methods in context. The studies examined the effective use and tailoring of ISD methods. For example, Iivari and Huisman (2007) examined method deployment as a function of organizational culture and Kudaravalli et al. (2017) outlined how ISD method choices regarding design decentralization and technical expertise impacted coordination outcomes.
A second evolution was the transition of ISD from being performed within organizations to being undertaken outside organizations through outsourcing and Open Source Software (OSS) development. The outsourcing articles highlighted new phenomena that arise in outsourced contexts, such as relational factors that influence the success of outsourced ISD projects (Rai et al. 2009), obligations of stakeholders in outsourcing relationships (Ågerfalk and Fitzgerald 2008), the need for control balancing in offshored ISD projects (Gregory et al. 2013), and optimal allocation of intellectual property rights (Chen et al. 2019). The OSS articles sought to understand the radically new way of developing software by engaging a broader community of developers (Fitzgerald 2006). Stewart and Gosain (2006) examined the effectiveness of OSS development, Daniel et al. (2018) examined ideological differences in the OSS community, Maruping et al. (2019) examined the personal values of OSS developers, and Tang et al. (2020) studied how OSS projects absorb external knowledge.
A third evolution saw a strong interest in the link between ISD work and ISD stakeholders in the organizational processes. These articles integrated research areas that were previously examined in isolation. Through this integration, a stronger cumulative record of ISD research in organizations emerged. For instance, Ravichandran and Rai (2000) studied how organizational stakeholders improve system quality through the design of the ISD process. In addition, articles examined the ISD team as an important stakeholder. They investigated team characteristics in terms of autonomy (Lee and Xia 2010, Ramasubbu and Bardhan, 2021), knowledge/expertise (Amstrong and Hardgrave 2007, Hahn and Lee, 2021, Kudaravalli et al. 2017), programming method (Balijepally et al. 2009), ideology (Stewart and Gosain 2006), and work attitude/behavior (Ang and Slaughter 2001).
A fourth evolution was the transformative nature of ISD methods from the traditional waterfall model to agile methods. The publication of the Agile Manifesto in 2001 was a watershed moment, and agile methods quickly became a reference point for IS researchers studying ISD in context. Researchers focused on how the ISD process had evolved from being standardized and pre-planned to being flexible and adaptive. In particular, Lee and Xia (2010) investigated the effect of team characteristics (autonomy and diversity) on ISD agility, Balijepally et al. (2009) compared the agile practice of pair programming in terms of its efficacy for individual programmers, and Maruping and Matook (2020) theorized different roles of customer representatives in agile ISD projects to explain the tension of assisting with ISD inputs while assessing ISD outputs.
The theories adopted in these articles were drawn from different disciplines, including economics (e.g., property rights, transaction cost economics), psychology/sociology (e.g., role theory, social networks, interpersonal conflict theory), and management (e.g., institutional theory, innovation).
3 Thematic Advances in Knowledge
Our analysis of the MISQ articles identified three tightly integrated research themes:
ISD stakeholders – human actors directly and indirectly involved in ISD activities
ISD processes – planned and ad hoc activities undertaken to create ISD outputs
ISD outputs – tangible and intangible outcomes of the ISD process
Table 1 presents detailed information about the articles published since 2000. Table 2 summarizes the historically important insights offered by the articles published from 1977 to 1999.
ISD stakeholders
The first major thematic advance focused on ISD stakeholders, including managers, users, teams, and communities. Managers, such as top management, IS executives, and IS managers, were of interest because their decision-making authority, knowledge, and attitude can support or impair ISD (Newman and Sabherwal 1996). They function as gatekeepers or champions for ISD.
Users are important stakeholders as they have vested interest in ISD outputs. Thus, articles examined user-related problems, including user participation (Barki and Hartwick 1994), communication challenges between analysts and users (Newman and Robey 1992; Salaway 1987), and the tension between serving as users and customer representatives in agile ISD (Maruping and Matook 2020).
The ISD team is another essential stakeholder. Of particular interest were the interactions of the team with other stakeholders and their responses to uncertainties and change. Articles examined cross-domain knowledge (Hahn and Lee 2021), responses to requirement changes (Lee and Xia 2010), and differences between contract developers and permanent developers (Ang and Slaughter 2001).
The OSS community is an increasingly significant stakeholder (Tang et al. 2020; Vlaar et al. 2008). Originally conceptualized as a voluntary contribution of gifted hackers, OSS came to be seen as a mainstream commercial ISD approach (Fitzgerald 2006). Researchers especially focused on OSS developers, including their motivations (Von Krogh et al. 2012), commitments and contributions (Daniel et al. 2018), and value system (Maruping et al. 2019).
ISD processes
The second major thematic advance focused on ISD processes, and especially ISD methods. In particular, researchers compared methods, such as evolutionary vs. revolutionary methods (Sircar et al. 2001), and investigated method practices, such as prototyping (Baskerville and Stage 1996), ISD metaphors (Kendall and Kendall 1993), and pair programming (Balijepally et al. 2009). Researchers also developed new method elements (Swanson et al. 1991), and examined the tailoring of existing methods (Hirschheim and Klein 1994).
Other articles enhanced our understanding of ISD method-in-use by studying how ISD methods are applied in real-world projects. For example, Malinova and Mendling (2021) examined how diagrammatic models (an applied aspect of an ISD method) aided analysis and design. Others studied the interplay of ISD methods with internal organizational aspects such as culture (Iivari and Huisman 2007) and method learning in offshoring and outsourcing (Ramasubbu et al. 2008).
A smaller set of articles focused on organizational aspects of ISD processes. In particular, researchers examined how ISD stakeholders’ mutual understanding changes over time (Jenkin et al. 2019), how ISD expertise is coordinated (Kudaravalli et al. 2017), how organizational quality systems can support ISD (Ravichandran and Rai 2000), and how ISD processes can span organizational boundaries, whether creating obligations, as they do in outsourcing relationships (Ågerfalk and Fitzgerald 2008), or motivating the need for the bridging of those boundaries (Holmström Olsson et al. 2008).
ISD outputs
The third major thematic advance focused on ISD outputs, especially systems characteristics and ISD performance. First, some articles studied the characteristics of the IS, in terms of reusability of software components (e.g., Apte et al. 1990; Jiang et al. 2019), systems reliability (Halloran et al. 1978), systems maintainability (e.g., Dekleva 1992; Swanson and Beath 1989), and systems complexity (Hahn and Lee 2021).
Second, several articles investigated various factors affecting ISD performance in terms of process performance (on-time and on-budget completion) and product performance (systems quality and user satisfaction). The factors studied include technical and process skills (White and Leifer 1986), ISD teams’ autonomy and diversity (Lee and Xia 2010), interpersonal conflict (Barki and Hartwick 2001), and attributes of cognitive systems (Mangalaraj et al. 2014).
4 Conclusion
MISQ has published many of the most influential ISD papers. Going forward, ISD researchers must keep up with, and ideally help shape, emerging ISD trends. These include the increasing use of microservices and platforms, the rise of artificial intelligence (AI), the emergence of DevOps, and the increasing complexity of ISD interdependencies (e.g., human-hybrid models). We believe the requirements for responsible ISD and ethical IS will be particularly important. Overall, the focus needs to shift from studying ISD per se, to studying ISD with a larger impact in mind, such as delivering on long-term sustainable development goals.
Acknowledgments
We thank Pär Ågerfalk, Likoebe M. Maruping and Lorraine Morgan for their helpful comments on earlier drafts. Andrew Burton-Jones and Priya Seetharaman provided invaluable feedback to further improve this curation. Sabine Matook benefited from support from the Australian Research Council (DP160100431). Gwanhoo Lee benefited from support from the UPS Foundation. Brian Fitzgerald benefited from support from Science Foundation Ireland under Grant number 13/RC/2094_P2.
Please cite this curation as follows: Matook, S., Lee, G., Fitzgerald, B. “Information Systems Development,” in MIS Quarterly Research Curations, Andrew Burton-Jones and Priya Seetharaman, Eds., http://misq.org/research-curations, December 7, 2021.
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